Fernando Bruno, Author at post https://post.moma.org notes on art in a global context Fri, 18 Sep 2020 16:22:26 +0000 en-US hourly 1 https://wordpress.org/?v=6.8.2 https://post.moma.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/cropped-favicon-32x32.png Fernando Bruno, Author at post https://post.moma.org 32 32 Sobre el lenguaje y sus límites. Las escrituras ilegibles de Mirtha Dermisache https://post.moma.org/sobre-el-lenguaje-y-sus-limites-las-escrituras-ilegibles-de-mirtha-dermisache/ Wed, 14 Nov 2018 17:07:00 +0000 https://post.moma.org/?p=1706 Fernando Bruno analiza la relación entre pintura y escritura en la obra de la artista argentina Mirtha Dermisache a finales de los sesenta y setenta, examinando el modo particular en que ésta se articula con algunas tendencias del arte argentino de la época.

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En este texto, Fernando Bruno analiza la relación entre pintura y escritura en la obra de la artista argentina Mirtha Dermisache a finales de los sesenta y setenta, examinando el modo particular en que ésta se articula con algunas tendencias del arte argentino de la época.

Lea la traducción al inglés aquí.

Mirtha Dermisache. Libro No 1, 1967. Tinta y marcadores de color sobre papel, 25,7 x 39,7 cm (abierto), 25,7 x 20,8 cm (cerrado). Ejemplar único de 108 páginas. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)

En el contexto argentino de fines de los sesenta y comienzos de los setenta, Mirtha Dermisache (Buenos Aires, 1940-2012) es una artista excepcional, cuya obra permite repensar desde nuevos ángulos las relaciones entre pintura y escritura, y las transformaciones ocurridas en la escena local con relación al surgimiento del arte de los medios y el conceptualismo en sentido amplio. Dermisache estuvo en contacto con las discusiones, los artistas y las instituciones más importantes de la época y, sin embargo, su obra no encaja completamente dentro de las corrientes principales que se establecieron en aquellos años.1En una época marcada por el giro lingüístico en las humanidades y la consolidación de la hegemonía de los medios masivos, Dermisache trabajó sobre los límites de la comunicación en cuanto tal. En este breve artículo, examinaré el modo en que la obra de Dermisache se articula con algunas tendencias del arte argentino, comparando, por un lado, sus “escrituras ilegibles” con las “escrituras deformadas” y las caligrafías legibles de León Ferrari, y, por otro, su intervención sobre los formatos establecidos en los medios impresos con la utilización de éstos realizada por los artistas asociados al arte de los medios.

A primera vista, los libros de Dermisache podrían encuadrarse dentro de la tendencia de los libros de artista que comenzaron a proliferar simultáneamente en diferentes partes del mundo, incluida Latinoamérica, como una de las manifestaciones del creciente activismo político en el seno de la sociedad civil y de la experimentación formal y estilística que inundaba el mundo del arte. Al ser productos relativamente baratos de adquirir y de fácil circulación, los libros de artista fueron vistos como un medio para alcanzar una audiencia masiva, más allá del ámbito de los museos y las galerías de arte. Los libros de artista cuestionan los parámetros del mercado del arte y también las convenciones de la industria editorial, ya que configuran sistemas de signos complejos y novedosos que no se adaptan a los patrones establecidos de lectura.2Estas características pueden encontrarse, al menos parcialmente, en la obra de Dermisache, quien abogaba por la experimentación formal y la circulación de su obra por fuera de los circuitos tradicionales. Sus libros, sin embargo, contienen elementos propios –algunos vinculados al personalísimo estilo de la artista, como el trabajo con escrituras ilegibles, y otros vinculados al contexto argentino, como la expansión del arte de los medios– que los separan de la imaginería comúnmente asociada a los libros de artista.

Dermisache realizó sus primeros dos libros en 1967. Originalmente fueron concebidos como un único volumen de unas 500 páginas, que por cuestiones prácticas fue dividido en ediciones separadas. Consideremos a los fines de este análisis el primero de ellos, titulado simplemente Libro N°1.3 La apariencia general es la de un libro estándar: el tamaño y la encuadernación dan la sensación de que nos encontramos frente a un objeto fácilmente identificable y extremadamente familiar. Llama la atención, sin embargo, la ausencia de un título y de toda referencia al autor en la tapa. Al abrir el volumen, esa leve advertencia da lugar a un profundo extrañamiento. No hay créditos ni índice; no hay capítulos, ni textos, ni fotografías, ni ilustraciones en el sentido tradicional, solo una primera página en blanco y luego una larga serie de escrituras asémicas que ocupan la totalidad del libro y que ni siquiera parecen tener una coherencia formal o estilística entre sí. Algunas páginas responden a la estructura formal de la escritura, incluyendo renglones, párrafos, saltos de líneas y espaciados. Otras carecen por completo de esas marcas y se acercan más explícitamente al dibujo libre, configurando estructuras circulares, de orientación vertical o diagonal, o totalmente abstractas e irregulares. A veces ocupan un espacio muy reducido y otras ocupan la página por completo. Los colores de las grafías varían entre sí y no parecen seguir ningún patrón reconocible. Estos signos “se alejan de la escritura”; sin embargo, “rehúsan acercarse a la plástica”.4 En ese espacio intermedio e indefinido, es el espectador el que debe completar la obra, intentando producir sentido entre la multiplicidad de posibilidades.

Dermisache trabajó en estas grafías durante varios años, y fue el filósofo y crítico francés Roland Barthes quien en 1971 las conceptualizó como “escrituras ilegibles”, una denominación que se volvería canónica para describir la obra de Dermisache.5  Aquel año, Barthes le envió una afectuosa carta en la que sostenía: “Me permito simplemente decirle cuán impresionado estoy, no solo por la gran calidad plástica de sus trazos (esto no es irrelevante), sino también, y sobre todo, por la extremada inteligencia de los problemas teóricos de la escritura que su trabajo supone. Usted ha sabido producir una cierta cantidad de formas, ni figurativas, ni abstractas, que se podrían ubicar bajo la definición de escritura ilegible, lo que propone a sus lectores, no solo los mensajes o las formas contingentes de la expresión, sino la idea, la esencia de la escritura”.6 “A partir de ese momento”, declaró retrospectivamente la propia Dermisache, “entendí lo que estaba haciendo. Para mi, fue como que él me explicaba a mí misma, lo que yo hacía”.7

Carta de Roland Barthes, 28 de marzo de 1971. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)

En su ensayo “Variaciones sobre la escritura”, Barthes desarrolla algunas ideas que pueden servir para comprender mejor la obra de la artista argentina. Allí defiende la tesis de que la verdad de la escritura no se encuentra en su carácter funcional ni en su eficacia comunicativa, y para ello se vale de la obra de artistas como el pintor surrealista André Masson y la propia Dermisache. Dice Barthes: “Existen también escrituras que no podemos comprender y de las que, sin embargo, no se puede decir que sean indescifrables, porque están simplemente fuera del desciframiento: son las escrituras ficticias que imaginan ciertos pintores o ciertos sujetos”.8 La historia de la caligrafía china es para él ejemplar en este punto: se trata de una escritura que fue primero estética y ritual (servía para dirigirse a los dioses) y luego funcional (como herramienta de comunicación y registro): “La función de comunicación, que nuestros lingüistas convierten en una respuesta para todo, es posterior, derivada, secundaria”. Barthes explica que la ilegibilidad no es un estado “desfalleciente” o “monstruoso” de la escritura, sino su verdad, “la esencia de una práctica tal vez en su extremo y no en su centro”, para luego sostener que las escrituras ilegibles “nos dicen (solamente) que hay signos, pero no sentido”.9 En efecto, el lenguaje propuesto por Dermisache niega la intención, la utilidad y la función, y se vuelve sobre sí mismo en busca de formas nuevas. Sus grafismos cuestionan, por un lado, la idea de que un mensaje puede ser inequívocamente expresado y recibido; por otro, la concordancia entre significado y significante, entre las palabras y las cosas. Y en ese doble juego problematizan la posibilidad misma de la comunicación y sus límites.

Sin embargo, el trabajo en los límites de la escritura y la pintura en el contexto argentino no es exclusivo de Dermisache. Los dibujos de León Ferrari a comienzos de la década del sesenta ya habían abierto un profundo campo de reflexión sobre el lenguaje y lo expresable. Ferrari inició su carrera realizando pequeñas esculturas y cerámicas, pero luego, en pocos años, tuvo un desarrollo que lo llevó de la abstracción tridimensional a las “escrituras deformadas” y de éstas a las caligrafías legibles.10 Ese proceso en el que la pintura se va haciendo palabra encuentra su punto álgido en el Cuadro escrito (1964), una pieza clave en su carrera, que desde su mismo título anuncia esa transformación del lenguaje pictórico en lenguaje escrito. Algunas de sus características separan, sin embargo, a la obra de Ferrari de la de Dermisache. En el caso de Dermisache, no hay una transición tal hacia la legibilidad: cada una de sus escrituras –las páginas de sus libros, sus cartas, sus fórmulas matemáticas–, si bien mantiene un estilo y una cualidad gráfica sumamente diferente entre sí, configura un experimento difícilmente repetible, alejado de la comprensión lingüística.11 Los títulos de Ferrari son descriptivos –y por lo tanto, indican un sentido– mientras que los de Dermisache son meramente ordinales y no brindan ninguna referencia de contenido; incluso podríamos decir que allí donde Ferrari escribe una pintura, Dermisache pinta una escritura. Finalmente, Dermisache no quería exponer sus grafías sueltas como “cuadros” sino incorporarlas en un sistema de edición y distribución, lo que también abre otro abanico de problemáticas vinculadas a los dispositivos informativos y de comunicación, especialmente en lo que se refiere a la circulación de la obra, al ataque a la idea de original y al museo como espacio privilegiado de exhibición.

Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Carta), ca. década, 1970. Tinta sobre papel, 26,5 x 17,2 cm. Ejemplar único. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Carta), ca. década, 1970. Tinta sobre papel, 28,5 x 20,2 cm. Ejemplar único. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Texto), ca. década, 1970. Tinta sobre papel, 28,1 x 23 cm. Ejemplar único. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Historieta), ca. 1972-1974. Tintas de color sobre papel, 28 x 23 cm. Ejemplar único. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)

Dermisache profundizó esta investigación sobre los medios de comunicación trabajando con una serie de tipologías reconocibles: periódicos, cartas, postales, fragmentos de historias, tiras de cómics. El Diario 1 Año 1, de 1972, sintetiza esta búsqueda, ya que retoma la estructura de una publicación compleja –un periódico de tirada masiva– que incluye una gran cantidad de tipologías diferentes.12 Las densidades de tinta y las variedades de tamaño permiten identificar fácilmente cada una de ellas. Tal como ocurre en el caso de sus Cartas, Dermisache respeta minuciosamente la disposición de los elementos en las páginas –la grilla, las columnas, los títulos, los copetes y los destacados– pero subvierte completamente los probables contenidos textuales y fotográficos. Como en el resto de su producción, realiza “una operación de desarme del medio”,13 de modo que los contenidos –las “noticias”– son ilegibles.

Mirtha Dermisache. Diario N° 1. Año 1 (tapa), 1972. Impresión offset sobre papel, 47 x 36,6 cm. Primera Edición Jorge Glusberg, Buenos Aires: Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC), 1972. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
Mirtha Dermisache. Diario N° 1. Año 1 (interior), 1972. Impresión offset sobre papel, 47 x 36,6 cm. Primera Edición Jorge Glusberg, Buenos Aires: Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC), 1972. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
Mirtha Dermisache. Diario N° 1. Año 1 (interior 2), 1972. Impresión offset sobre papel, 47 x 36,6 cm. Primera Edición Jorge Glusberg, Buenos Aires: Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC), 1972. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)

La experimentación artística con los medios masivos era en esos años un tema central en la escena argentina. En el manifiesto “Un arte de los medios de comunicación”, escrito en 1966, Eduardo Costa, Raúl Escari y Roberto Jacoby centraron su propuesta para un nuevo arte en la transmisión de la información. A diferencia del Pop art, que tomaba elementos y técnicas de los medios masivos para incorporarlos a una obra, estos artistas buscaron construir la obra “en el interior” de dichos medios y la concibieron como un proceso complejo que va desde la realización de la obra (real o inventada) hasta su difusión. El nuevo arte se afianzaba así más como una crítica del poder de manipulación de los medios masivos que como una celebración de sus posibilidades expresivas.14 Empujados por la situación política y económica del país, en especial luego del golpe de Juan Carlos Onganía,15  los artistas de avanzada buscaron diluir los límites entre la esfera estética y la política, y radicalizaron sus posturas, como puede verse paradigmáticamente en el caso de la obra colectiva Tucumán Arde, de la que participaron, entre muchos otros, tanto Ferrari como Jacoby.16 Esa radicalización encontró un modo privilegiado de expresión en la utilización revolucionaria de los canales informativos. Tucumán Arde explícitamente se presentó como “la creación de un circuito sobreinformacional para evidenciar la solapada deformación que los hechos producidos en Tucumán sufren a través de los medios de información y difusión que detentan el poder oficial y la clase burguesa”.17

Mirtha Dermisache. Fragmento de historia, 1974/ 2010. Impresión offset sobre papel, en carpeta blanca, 30 x 41 cm (abierto) 30 x 20,3 cm (cerrado). Edición de 8 páginas, 6 imágenes. Firmado. Florent Fajole & Guillermo Daghero (Ed.) Nîmes: Edición de la Mangrove (Manglar), 2010. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)

Al igual que los artistas identificados con el arte de los medios, Dermisache trabaja sobre los formatos establecidos de los medios impresos y pone la circulación de la obra en el centro del proceso artístico, pero lo hace desde una perspectiva bien diferente, mucho más intimista y solitaria que aquellos. Si los artistas de los medios estaban preocupados por el problema de la desmaterialización del objeto artístico y por tematizar los medios en cuanto medios, no como soporte de otros contenidos por fuera de ellos, Dermisache ve en la estructura formal de los diarios, las historietas y las cartas una oportunidad para expandir su campo expresivo e investigar nuevas posibilidades para sus trazos caligráficos. Por otra parte, lejos de experiencias como Tucumán Arde, Dermisache se negó en general a considerar las implicancias políticas de su obra. En una entrevista publicada en 2011, sostuvo: “La única vez que me referí a la situación política de mi país fue en el Diario. La columna de la izquierda que está en la última página es una alusión a los muertos de Trelew. Esto fue en 1972. Fuera de esta masacre, que sí me impactó, como impactó a muchos, nunca quise dar un sentido político a mi obra. Lo que hice, y sigo haciendo, es desarrollar ideas gráficas con respecto a la escritura, que en el fondo, creo, tienen poco que ver con los acontecimientos políticos pero sí con las estructuras y formas del lenguaje”.18 Sin embargo, algunas de sus operaciones sobre los aspectos formales de la escritura en los límites de lo pictórico difícilmente pueden ser leídas desde una perspectiva crítica sin referir al contexto de represión y violencia política en el que fueron producidas. Tal es el caso, entre otros, del Diario 1 y de Fragmento de historia, de 1974, en los que muchos de los trazos pierden el color y la cualidad caligráfica para convertirse en tachaduras, borroneados o directamente en bloques de tinta negra que remiten –consciente o inconscientemente– a la censura y la imposibilidad de expresión.19

Mirtha Dermisache. Fragmento de historia 2, 1974. Tinta sobre papel, sin encuadernación, 28,1 x 23,2 cm. Ejemplar único de 14 páginas, 6 imágenes. Titulado y fechado en faja externa de papel, sin firmar. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
Mirtha Dermisache. Página de un libro, 1974. Impresión offset sobre papel, 27 x 21,7 cm., realizado por el Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC), GT – 592, Buenos Aires, 1 de diciembre de 1975. Edición de época. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)

La obra de Dermisache configura así un complejo universo en el que se entrecruzan diversas problemáticas que se vinculan tanto a cuestiones conceptuales y filosóficas atemporales (la dimensión estética de la comunicación, la dinámica entre lo expresable y lo inexpresable), como a las mencionadas determinaciones históricas propias del contexto local. Su trabajo plástico constituye una propuesta sumamente personal que permite reconsiderar desde nuevas perspectivas las tendencias imperantes en la escena artística argentina de la época. En el momento de expansión de las investigaciones en torno a la desmaterialización del objeto artístico, Dermisache se concentró obsesivamente en la producción manual de piezas caligráficas. Y, a contracorriente de las tendencias de la época, persistió en su “escritura” como un medio de reflexión plástica sobre la esencia misma del lenguaje.

Mirtha Dermisache. Libro N° 5, 1971. Marcador sobre papel, 29,3 x 26 cm. Firmado y fechado. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
Mirtha Dermisache. Libro No 4, 1972. Tinta azul sobre papel, 30 x 26,7 cm. Libro original firmado y fechado, tapa dura negra, reencuadernado en el 2000. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Libro), 1973. Tinta sobre papel, sin encuadernación, 28, 5 x 23 cm. Ejemplar único de 170 páginas; 83 imágenes. Firmado y fechado, sin titular. Cortesía Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD)
1    Si bien no fue una de sus protagonistas principales, Dermisache participó en muchas de las actividades del Instituto Torcuato Di Tella. En el marco del Centro Latinoamericano de Altos Estudios Musicales (CLAEM) del Instituto, por ejemplo, trabajó en un proyecto para convertir sus grafismos en sonido, junto a Fernando von Reichenbach y otros compositores. También estuvo vinculada al Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC) y al Grupo de los Trece en sus comienzos, participando en varias de sus exhibiciones colectivas. 
2    Para un panorama general del auge de los libros de artista en la década del sesenta, ver Joan Lyons, “Introduction”, y Lucy Lippard, “The Artists’ Book Goes Public”, en Artists’ Books: A Critical Anthology and Sourcebook (New York: Visual Studies Worksop Press, 1985). En el contexto latinoamericano, artistas como León Ferrari, Ulises Carrión, Leandro Katz, Cecilia Vicuña, y Edgardo Antonio Vigo, entre otros, trabajaron sobre diferentes tipos de publicaciones en los mismos años que Dermisache. 
3    A partir de ese momento Dermisache numeraría correlativamente las diferentes ediciones de sus libros, comenzando cada año por el número 1.
4    Edgardo Cozarinsky, “Un grado cero de la escritura”, Panorama, Año VII, n. ̊ 156 (21 de abril de 1970): 51. 
5    Dermisache había contactado a Barthes a través del cineasta argentino Hugo Santiago, director del hoy míticofilm Invasión (1969), quien había llevado uno de sus libros a la ciudad de París.
6    Carta de Roland Barthes del 28 de marzo de 1971, reproducida en español en Mirtha Dermisache. Porque ¡yo escribo!, catálogo de la exposición editado por el curador Agustín Pérez Rubio (Buenos Aires: Malba y Fundación Espigas, 2017), 263. El Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD) tiene registro de nueve cartas enviadas por Barthes entre 1971 y 1974. Algunas están escritas a mano y otras mecanografiadas; en su mayoría se ocupan de cuestiones burocráticas vinculadas a recomendaciones y pedidos puntuales. Esta carta en particular es la que expresa más cabalmente el interés del crítico francés, y sirvió de base para un pequeño texto escrito por Barthes en 1973, que debía funcionar como presentación de la obra de Dermisache. 
7    Annalisa Rimmaudo y Giulia Lamoni, “Entrevista a Mirtha Dermisache”, en Mirtha Dermisache. Publicaciones y dispositivos editoriales (Buenos Aires: Pabellón de las Bellas Artes de la Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina, 2011). Disponible en http://hipermedula.org/2017/08/entrevista-a-mirtha-dermisache/.
8    Roland Barthes, “Variaciones sobre la escritura”, en Variaciones sobre la escritura (Buenos Aires: Paidós, 2002), 105.
9    Ibid., 91 y 105.
10    Dice Luis Pérez-Oramas: “Es interesante subrayar que este proceso comienza por la abstracción –dibujos abstractos– y concluye en la escritura –dibujos escritos–. En algún momento, Ferrari ha dejado caer una observación sobre esta lógica, como si en ella se invirtiera un orden moderno del cual se esperaría que la escritura fuese sometida –como en Antonin Artaud o en Henri Michaux– a un proceso de abstracción, hasta hacerse caligrafía ilegible, indescriptible”. Cf. León Ferrari y Mira Schendel: el alfabeto enfurecido (Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía, TF Editores, 2009), 23. Catálogo de la exposición.
11    Salvo por algunos papeles sueltos que presentan su propia letra manuscrita claramente legible, que ella conservó pero nunca consideró como “obra”. 
12    El Diario 1 Año 1, fue editado en septiembre de 1972 por el CAyC para la muestra Arte de Sistemas II, en el Museo de Arte Moderno de Buenos Aires, sobre una hoja del CAyC. En los años siguientes tendría diversas ediciones, con leves variaciones en su contenido y estructura. Una edición de 1975, publicada por Guy Schraenen, forma parte de la colección de la biblioteca del MoMA. Ver al respecto el artículo del propio Schraenen y la biografía escrita por Cintia Mezza, Cecilia Iida y Ana Raviña en el catálogo de la exposiciónMirtha Dermisache. Porque ¡yo escribo!, p. 33-48 y 255-290 respectivamente.
13    La expresión es del escritor argentino Héctor Libertella, quien se ocupó de la obra de Dermisache en susEnsayos o pruebas sobre una red hermética (Buenos Aires: Grupo Editor Latinoamericano, 1990). “Dermisache fabrica perfectos periódicos en los que se dibuja como memoria una primera plana, una sección de historietas, un comentario editorial, una gruesa página –o página de trazos gruesos– de noticias policiales y violentas, un negro aviso necrológico. Partiendo de un hecho admitido de comunicación escrita, ella vacía las expectativas clásicas del receptor por una operación de desarme del medio”. Op. cit., 23-24.
14    Dice Roberto Jacoby en “Contra el happening” (1967): “Sabemos bien que los medios de comunicación de masas son fundamentales en el control de una sociedad y que por lo tanto son instrumentados –no menos que la escritura en otro tiempo– por los grupos que hoy detentan el poder”. Roberto Jacoby, “Contra el happening”, en Escritos de vanguardia. Arte argentino de los años ’60, ed. por Inés Katzenstein (Buenos Aires: Fundación Espigas, Fundación PROA y MoMA, 2007), 237-242.
15    El 28 de junio de 1966 se produjo un golpe de Estado contra el presidente constitucional Arturo Illia encabezado por el general Juan Carlos Onganía, quien asumiría la presidencia de facto hasta 1970. Onganía disolvió los partidos políticos, intervino las universidades nacionales y promovió la represión llevada adelante por las fuerzas armadas al interior del país. Desde el punto de vista económico, la dictadura se caracterizó por una redistribución de ingresos a favor de los sectores concentrados o ligados al capital extranjero.
16    Tucumán Arde fue un proyecto realizado por un grupo de artistas en noviembre de 1968 a partir de un trabajo de investigación sobre las condiciones de explotación de la población y concentración del capital en el norte de la Argentina. Consistió en el propio registro de campo, una exposición presentada en las sedes de las centrales obreras de Buenos Aires y Rosario, y diversas acciones de difusión y publicidad.
17    Ver “Un arte de los medios de comunicación”, en Inés Katzenstein (ed.), op. cit., 231-232.
18    Annalisa Rimmaudo y Giulia Lamoni, op. cit., 15. La Masacre de Trelew fue un acto de represión clandestina que anticipó el terrorismo de Estado en la Argentina. El 15 de agosto de 1972, veinticinco prisioneros políticos se fugaron de una prisión de Rawson, en la provincia de Chubut. Seis de ellos consiguieron escapar a Chile y los diecinueve restantes se rindieron y fueron arrestados en el aeropuerto de Trelew. Desde allí fueron trasladados a una base de la Fuerza Aérea, donde fueron asesinados seis días más tarde por personal de la Marina. Tres de los militantes consiguieron sobrevivir, aunque fueron severamente heridos. 
19    Cabe aquí mencionar que durante la última dictadura cívico-militar (1976-1983), Dermisache dejó bastante de lado la producción de nuevas escrituras para dedicarle más tiempo a la labor docente, que ella ejercía con un método propio de experimentación artística. Tanto en el taller de Acciones Creativas (tAC) como en las Jornadas del Color y de la Forma, buscó generar espacios de expresión libre y luego propiciar la creación de una suerte de obra colectiva desarrollada en el tiempo que integrara los diferentes trabajos de los participantes. En su artículo “Las Jornadas del Color y de la Forma (1975-1981). El arte como praxis vital”, Lucía Cañada describe exhaustivamente la dinámica de las Jornadas y su contexto, y sostiene que su organización constituyó un espacio de libertad en un momento de disciplinamiento y control de los cuerpos y las ideas: “En un contexto de avance del individualismo, la delación y la desconfianza del otro, Dermisache convocó a una propuesta colectiva para sentarse junto a otro, trabajar con él o al lado de él, continuar con su trabajo, hacerlo suyo, dejarlo sabiendo que alguien lo iba a continuar. Invitó a pensar acciones creativas, a jugar con el color, a conectarse con la praxis vital. Ése fue su mayor acto político, su apuesta, su gesto de vanguardia”. Cf. el catálogo Mirtha Dermisache. Porque ¡yo escribo!, 49-63.

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On Language and Its Limits: The Illegible Writings of Mirtha Dermisache https://post.moma.org/on-language-and-its-limits-the-illegible-writings-of-mirtha-dermisache/ Wed, 14 Nov 2018 16:39:00 +0000 https://post.moma.org/?p=1687 Fernando Bruno analyzes the particular relationship between painting and writing in the work of Argentine artist Mirtha Dermisache, examining the specific ways in which it contrasts with some of the most significant artistic tendencies at the end of the sixties and seventies in Argentina.

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In this text, Fernando Bruno analyzes the particular relationship between painting and writing in the work of Argentine artist Mirtha Dermisache, examining the specific ways in which it contrasts with some of the most significant artistic tendencies at the end of the sixties and seventies in Argentina.

Read the Spanish version here.

Mirtha Dermisache. Libro No 1 (Book No. 1), 1967. Ink and color marker on paper. Unique edition, 108 pages, 25,7 x 39,7 cm (open), 25,7 x 20,8 cm (closed). Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive

In the Argentine context of the late sixties and early seventies, Mirtha Dermisache (1940–2012) is an exceptional artist whose work allows us to rethink, from new angles, the relationship between painting and writing, and the transformations that occurred in connection with the emergence of mass-media art and conceptualism in a broad sense. Dermisache was in touch with the most important discussions, artists, and institutions of the time, yet her work doesn’t completely fit in with the main trends established during those years.1 In a time marked by the linguistic turn in the humanities and the consolidation of the hegemony of mass media, Dermisache worked at the limits of communication as such. In this brief article, I will examine the way Dermisache’s work connects with some tendencies in Argentine art, comparing, on the one hand, her “illegible writings” to León Ferrari’s “deformed writings” and legible calligraphies, and, on the other, her intervention in the established formats of print media to the ways mass-media artists made use of them.

At first glance, Dermisache’s books could be considered within the artist’s book trend that began to proliferate simultaneously in different parts of the world—Latin America included—as one of the manifestations of the growing political activism in civil society, and of the formal and stylistic experimentation that inundated the art world. Being relatively inexpensive to produce and easy to circulate, artist’s books were seen as a means of reaching a mass audience beyond the museum and art gallery circles. Artist’s books question the parameters of the art market as well as the conventions of the publishing industry, insofar as they shape new and complex systems of signs that do not conform to established reading patterns.2These characteristics are reflected, at least partially, in the works of Dermisache, who championed formal experimentation and the circulation of her work outside traditional circuits. Her books, however, contain certain specific features—some connected to her very personal style, such as her work with illegible writings, and others connected to the Argentine context, such as the expansion of mass-media art—which separate them from the imagery commonly associated with artist’s books.

Dermisache produced her two first books in 1967. They were originally conceived of as a single volume of five hundred pages that was, for practical reasons, divided into separate books. Let us consider, for the purpose of this analysis, the first of those books, simply called Libro N°1 (Book No. 1).3 In general, this looks like a standard book: its size and binding suggest an easily identifiable and extremely familiar object. However, the absence of a title or any reference to the author on the cover captures our attention. When we open the volume, that slight hint of something unusual gives way to a deep strangeness. There are no credits or index; there are no chapters, no texts, no photographs, and no illustrations in the traditional sense—just a blank first page, and then a long series of asemic writings that take up the entire book and do not appear to have any formal or stylistic coherence. Some pages have the formal structure of writing, including lines, paragraphs, ends of lines, and spacing. Other pages lack those elements and instead resemble free drawing, with marks forming in some cases circular structures; while still others are vertically or diagonally oriented, or are totally abstract and irregular. Sometimes the marks take up a limited space and sometimes they take up the entire page. The colors of the graphic symbols vary and do not appear to follow any recognizable pattern. These signs “move away from writing,” and yet they “refuse to move closer to visual art.”4 In that undefined, in-between space, it is the viewer who, attempting to create meaning out of the multiplicity of possibilities, must complete the work.

Dermisache worked on these graphic symbols for several years, and it was the French philosopher and critic Roland Barthes who, in 1971, conceptualized them as “illegible writings,” a designation that would become canonical for any description of Dermisache’s work.5 That year, Barthes sent the artist an affectionate letter in which he wrote: “I will only say how struck I am not only by the remarkable quality of your lines (and that is not a secondary question), but also—indeed mostly —by the extreme intelligence of the theoretical problems around writing that your work tackles. You have managed to produce a certain number of forms that are neither figurative nor abstract, forms that could be called illegible writing, which leads readers to formulate something that is neither a specific message nor a contingent form of expression, but, rather, the idea, the essence, of writing.”6“From then on,” Dermisache said retrospectively, “I understood what I was doing. It was as if he had explained to me what it was I was doing.”7

Letter from Roland Barthes to Mirtha Dermisache, March 28, 1971. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive

In his 1973 essay, “Variations sur l’écriture” (Variations in Writing), Barthes develops ideas that could serve to help better understand the Argentine artist’s work. He argues that the true nature of writing is not in its functionality or its effective communication, and to do so he draws on the work of artists such as the Surrealist painter André Masson and Dermisache. He says, “There are also writings that we cannot understand, and yet, we cannot say they are indecipherable, because they simply are beyond decipherment: those are the fictitious writings that certain painters or certain subjects imagine.”8 The history of Chinese calligraphy is, to him, an example of this point: writing was first aesthetic and ritual (it could be used to address the gods), and only after that functional (as a tool of communication and record keeping): “The communication function, which our linguists transform into an answer to everything, is subsequent, derivative, secondary.” Barthes explains that illegibility is not a “dispirited” or “monstrous” state of writing, but rather its true nature, “the essence of a practice perhaps at its extreme and not its center,” and he goes on to claim that illegible writings “tell us (only) that there are signs, but not sense.”9 Indeed, the language proposed by Dermisache denies intention, utility, and function, and turns in on itself in search of new forms. On the one hand, her graphisms question the idea that a message can be unequivocally expressed and received; on the other, they question the agreement between meaning and signifier, between words and things. And in this dual movement, they challenge the possibility of communication itself, and its limits.

Working at the limits between writing and painting in the Argentine context, however, is not exclusive to Dermisache. León Ferrari’s drawings in the early sixties had already opened a field for reflection on language and what is expressible. Ferrari began his career making small sculptures and ceramics, but then, within a few years, his development took him from tridimensional abstraction to “deformed writings,” and from those to illegible calligraphies.10 This process, in which painting becomes words, reached its peak in 1964’s Cuadro escrito (Written Painting), a key piece in his career. The title itself announces the transformation of pictorial language into written language. Yet some of its characteristics separate Ferrari’s work from Dermisache’s. In her case, there is no such transition toward legibility: each of her writings—the pages in her books, her letters, her mathematical formulae—while maintaining highly different styles and graphic qualities among themselves, is an experiment that would be difficult to repeat, that is far from linguistic understanding.11 Ferrari’s titles are descriptive—and so point to a meaning—while Dermisache’s titles are merely ordinal and provide no reference to content; we could even say that where Ferrari writes a painting, Dermisache paints a writing. Finally, Dermisache did not want to exhibit her graphic symbols separately like “paintings,” she wanted to incorporate them into a publishing and distribution system, which opens another range of problems related to information and communication devices, especially regarding the circulation of works, the attack on the idea of the original, and the museum as a privileged exhibition space.

Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Carta) (Untitled [Letter]). C. 1970s. Ink on paper, 10 7/16 x 6 3/4″ (26.5 x 17.2 cm). Unique edition. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive
Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Carta) (Untitled [Letter]). C. 1970s. Ink on paper, 11 1/4 x 7 15/16″ (28.5 x 20.2 cm). Unique edition. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive
Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Texto) (Untitled [Texto]). C. 1970s. Ink on paper, 11 1/16 x 9 1/16″ (28.1 x 23 cm). Unique edition. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive
Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Historieta) (Untitled [Comic Strip]). C. 1972-1974. Colored inks on paper, 11 x 9 1/16″ (28 x 23 cm). Unique edition. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive

Dermisache went deep into this research on media, working with a series of recognizable typologies: newspapers, letters, postcards, fragments of stories, comic strips. Diario 1 Año 1 (Newspaper 1 Year 1), from 1972, synthesizes her search, since it resumes the structure of a complex publication—a large-circulation newspaper—that includes a great number of different typologies.12Ink densities and varying type size allow the easy identification of each typology. As with herCartas (Letters), Dermisache meticulously respected the disposition of all the elements on the page—the grids, columns, titles, leads, and highlights—while completely subverting the probable textual and photographic contents. As with the rest of her production, she carried out “a disassembling operation of the medium,”13so that its content—the “news”—is illegible.

Mirtha Dermisache. Diario 1 Año 1 (Newspaper 1 Year 1) (cover). 1972. Offset print on paper, 18 1/2 x 14 7/16″ (47 x 36.6 cm). First edition Jorge Glusberg, Buenos Aires: Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC), 1972. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive
Mirtha Dermisache. Diario 1 Año 1 (Newspaper 1 Year 1) (interior). 1972. Offset print on paper, 18 1/2 x 14 7/16″ (47 x 36.6 cm). First edition Jorge Glusberg, Buenos Aires: Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC), 1972. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive
Mirtha Dermisache. Diario 1 Año 1 (Newspaper 1 Year 1) (interior 2). 1972. Offset print on paper, 18 1/2 x 14 7/16″ (47 x 36.6 cm). First edition Jorge Glusberg, Buenos Aires: Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC), 1972. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive

Artistic experimentation with mass media was a primary focus in the Argentine scene during those years. In the 1966 text “Un arte de los medios de comunicación (manifiesto)” (“An Art of Communications Media [manifesto]”), Eduardo Costa, Raúl Escari, and Roberto Jacoby focused their proposal for a new art on thetransmission of information. Unlike Pop artists, who drew on elements and techniques from the mass media and incorporated them into their work, these artists aimed to build their work “inside” the media. They conceived of their work as a complex process, from its production (real or invented) to its circulation. The new art thus took hold as a critique of mass media’s powers of manipulation rather than as a celebration of its expressive capabilities.14Driven by the political and economic situation, especially after Juan Carlos Onganía’s coup,15avant-garde artists sought to blur the boundaries between the aesthetic and political spheres, and became radicalized, as evidenced in the paradigmatic collective workTucumán Arde (Tucumán is Burning), in which, along with many others, both Ferrari and Jacoby took part.16This radicalization found a privileged means of expression in the revolutionary use of information channels. Tucumán Arde was explicitly presented as “the creation of a super-informative circuit in order to show the underhanded distortions that the events in Tucuman suffered in the information and broadcast media controlled by the official powers and the bourgeoisie.”17

Mirtha Dermisache. Fragmento de historia (Fragment of a Story). 1974/2010. Offset print on paper, in a white folder, 11 13/16 x 16 1/8″ (30 x 41 cm) (opened), 11 13/16 x 8″ (30 x 20.3 cm) (closed). Edition: 8 pages, 6 images. Signed. Ed. Florent Fajole and Guillermo Daghero, Nîmes: Editions de la Mangrove, October 2010. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive

Like the artists identified with mass-media art, Dermisache worked with the established formats of print media and put the circulation of works at the center of the artistic process, but she did so from a very different perspective, a much more solitary and intimate one. While mass-media artists were concerned with the dematerialization of the artistic object and the thematization of the media as media, not as support of other content outside itself, Dermisache saw in the formal structure of newspapers, comic strips, and letters a chance to expand her expressive field and to explore new possibilities for her calligraphic lines. On the other hand, far from experiences such as Tucumán Arde, in general Dermisache refused to consider the political implications of her work. In an interview published in 2011, she claimed: “The only time I made reference to the political situation in my country in my work was in Diario: the column on the left on the last page alludes to those killed in Trelew. That was in 1972. Except for that massacre, which affected me—and many others—a great deal, I never wanted my work to be read in political terms. What I was doing, and still do, is develop graphic ideas on writing which, in the end, have little to do with political events but much to do with the structures and forms of language.”18However, some of her practices regarding the formal aspects of writing on the margins of painting can hardly be read from a critical perspective without referring to the context of repression and political violence in which they were produced. This is the case with, among others, Diario 1 (Newspaper 1) and Fragmento de historia (Fragment of a Story), from 1974, in which many of the lines lose their color and their calligraphic quality, and become cross-outs, erasures, or plain blocks of black ink that call to mind—consciously or unconsciously—censorship and the impossibility of expression.19

Mirtha Dermisache. Fragmento de historia 2 (Fragment of a Story 2). 1974. Ink on paper, unbound, 11 1/16 x 9 1/8″ (28.1 x 23.2 cm). Unique edition, 14 pages, 6 images. Titled and dated on outside paper wrap, unsigned. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive
Mirtha Dermisache. Página de un libro (Page from a Book). 1974. Offset print on paper, 10 5/8 x 8 9/16″ (27 x 21.7 cm). Buenos Aires: Centro de Arte y Comunicación, GT – 592, December 1, 1975. Vintage edition. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive

Dermisache’s work thus gives shape to a complex universe in which a range of issues cross, connected both to conceptual and timeless philosophical questions (the aesthetical dimension of communication, the dynamics between the expressible and the inexpressible), and to the mentioned historical determinations specific to the local context. Her visual work represents an extremely personal project that allows us to rethink, from new angles, the prevailing trends in the Argentine art scene during those years. At the time of the expansion of research into the dematerialization of the artistic object, Dermisache obsessively focused on the manual production of calligraphic pieces. And, going against the trends of the time, she persisted with her “writing” as a means of reflecting, from a visual arts perspective, on the very essence of language.

Mirtha Dermisache. Libro N° 5 (Book No. 5). 1971. Marker on paper, 11 9/16 x 10 1/4″ (29.3 x 26 cm). Signed and dated. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive
Mirtha Dermisache. Libro No 4 (Book No. 4). 1972. Blue ink on paper, black hard cover, 11 13/16 x 10 1/2 (30 x 26.7 cm). Original book, signed and dated, re-bound in 2000. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive
Mirtha Dermisache. Sin título (Libro) (Untitled [Book]). 1973. Ink on paper, unbound, 11 1/4 x 9 1/16″ (28.5 x 23 cm). Unique edition, 170 pages, 83 images. Signed and dated, untitled. Courtesy of the Mirtha Dermisache Archive

Translated from Spanish by Silvina López Medin.

1    Although she was not one of the main figures in Instituto Torcuato Di Tella, Dermisache participated in many of its activities. For instance, within the framework of the Centro Latinoamericano de Altos Estudios Musicales (CLAEM), which was part of the institute, she worked on a project to turn her graphisms into sounds, alongside Fernando von Reichenbach and other composers. She was also connected to the Centro de Arte y Comunicación (CAyC) [Center for Art and Communication] and to the Grupo de los Trece in their beginnings, and participated in several of their collective exhibitions.
2    For an overview of the boom of artist’s books in the seventies, see Joan Lyons, “Introduction,” and Lucy Lippard, “The Artist’s Book Goes Public,” in Artists’ Books: A Critical Anthology and Sourcebook (Rochester, NY: Visual Studies Workshop Press, 1985). In the Latin American context, artists such as León Ferrari, Ulises Carrión, Leandro Katz, Cecilia Vicuña, and Edgardo Antonio Vigo, among others, worked on various types of publications in the same years as Dermisache. 
3    As of that moment, Dermisache would consecutively number the different editions of her books, beginning each year with 1.
4    Edgardo Cozarinsky, “Un grado cero de la escritura” [“A zero degree of writing”], Panorama 7, no. 156 (April 21, 1970): 51.
5    Dermisache had contacted Barthes through Argentine filmmaker Hugo Santiago, director of the now-legendary film Invasión (1969), who had taken one of her books to Paris.
6    Roland Barthes to Mirtha Dermisache, March 28, 1971, in Mirtha Dermisache. Porque ¡yo escribo! [Mirta Dermisache: because I write!], ed. Agustín Pérez Rubio, exh. cat. (Buenos Aires: Malba and Fundación Espigas, 2017), 263. The Archivo Mirtha Dermisache (AMD) registers nine letters sent to Dermisache by Barthes between 1971 and 1974. Some are handwritten and some are typewritten; most deal with bureaucratic issues related to recommendations and specific requests. This letter, in particular, is the one that most accurately reflects the French critic’s interest, and served as the basis for a short text that, written by Barthes in 1973, was to serve as an introduction to Dermisache’s work.
7    Annalisa Rimmaudo and Giulia Lamoni, “Entrevista a Mirtha Dermisache” [Interview with Mirtha Dermisache], inMirtha Dermisache. Publicaciones y dispositivos editoriales [Mirtha Dermisache: Publications and editorial devices], exh. cat. (Buenos Aires: Pabellón de las Bellas Artes de la Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina, 2011), http://hipermedula.org/2017/08/entrevista-a-mirtha-dermisache/.
8    Roland Barthes, “Variations sur l’écriture” [Variations in writing], in Oeuvres complètes [Complete works], vol. 2, 1966–1973 (Paris: Éd. du Seuil, DL, 1994).
9    Ibid., 91, 105.
10    Luis Pérez-Oramas says: “It is interesting to note that this progression began with abstraction—abstract drawings—and ended with writing—written drawings. At some point, Ferrari commented on this logic, as if within it he had inverted a modern order according to which writing would be abstracted—as in the work of Antonin Artaud and Henri Michaux—into a calligraphy that is illegible, indescribable.” See León Ferrari y Mira Schendel: Tangled Alphabets (New York: The Museum of Modern Art; São Paulo, Brazil: Cosac Naify, 2009), 23.
11    Except for some loose papers that present her own handwriting in a clearly legible way, which she kept but never considered “work.”
12    Diario 1 Año 1 (Newspaper 1 year 1) was published by the CAyC in September 1972 for the Arte de sistemas IIexhibition at the Museo de Arte Moderno de Buenos Aires. There would be different editions in the following years, with slight variations in content and structure. One 1975 edition, published by Guy Schraenen, is held in the MoMA Library. See Schraenen, “A Transatlantic ‘Affair’,” and Cintia Mezza, Cecilia Iida, and Ana Raviña, biographical chronicle, “Mirtha Dermisache, Life and Work 1940–2012,” in Mirtha Dermisache. Porque ¡yo escribo!, 33–48, 255–90. 
13    The expression belongs to Argentine writer Héctor Libertella, who examined Dermisache’s work: “Dermisache creates perfect newspapers where she draws like a memory a front page, a comic strip section, an editorial, a thick page—or a page of thick strokes—for the violent crime news, a black obituary. Starting from a given written communication event, she empties the classical expectations of the recipient through a disassembling operation of the medium.” Héctor Libertella, Ensayos o pruebas sobre una red hermética [Essays or evidence on a hermetic net]. (Buenos Aires: Grupo Editor Latinoamericano, 1990), 23–24. 
14    In “Against the Happening” (1967), Roberto Jacoby says, “We are well aware that mass media are essential to control a society and they are therefore manipulated—not less than was writing, in other times—by those now in power.” Roberto Jacoby, “Against the Happening,” in Listen, Here, Now!: Argentine Art of the 1960s: Writings of the Avant-Garde, ed. Inés Katzenstein (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2004), 237–42. 
15    On June 28, 1966, there was a coup d’état against constitutional president Arturo Umberto Illia, led by Juan Carlos Onganía, the general who would be the de facto president until 1970. Onganía dissolved political parties, took control of national universities, and encouraged military repression in the provinces. From an economic point of view, the dictatorship was characterized by the redistribution of income in favor of the most concentrated sectors or those related to foreign capital. 
16    Tucumán Arde [Tucumán is Burning] was a project executed by a group of artists in November 1968 based on their research work about the exploitative conditions of the people and the concentration of capital in northern Argentina. It consisted of field records, an exhibition held in the headquarters of the confederations of labor unions in Buenos Aires and Rosario, and various actions of publicity and dissemination. 
17    See Inés Katzenstein, “An Art of Communications Media (manifesto),” in Listen, Here, Now!: Argentine Art of the 1960s: Writings of the Avant-Garde, 231–32.
18    Rimmaudo and Lamoni, “Entrevista a Mirtha Dermisache,” 15. The Masacre de Trelew [Trelew massacre] was an act of clandestine repression that anticipated state terrorism in Argentina. On August 15, 1972, twenty-five political prisoners escaped from a prison in Rawson, Chubut Province. Six of them managed to flee to Chile, and the remaining nineteen surrendered and were arrested at the Trelew airport. From there, they were taken to an air force base, where, six days later, they were murdered by members of the navy. Three of the militants managed to survive, although they were severely wounded. 
19    It is worth mentioning that during the last civic-military dictatorship (1976–83), Dermisache put aside somewhat her production of new writing in order to devote more time to teaching, which she did following her own method of artistic experimentation. Both in the Taller de Acciones Creativas (TAC) [Creative actions workshop] and in the Jornadas del Color y de la Forma [Intensive work sessions in color and form], she sought to generate spaces for free expression and then to foster the creation of a sort of collective work that, developing over time, would bring together the participants’ various pieces. In her article “Las Jornadas del Color y de la Forma (1975– 1981). El arte como praxis vital” (Intensive work sessions in color and form (1975–1981): art as vital praxis), Lucía Cañada thoroughly describes the dynamics of the Jornadas and their context, and claims that their organization represented a space of freedom at a time when bodies and ideas were being disciplined and controlled: “In a context of greater and greater individualism, of betrayal, and of mistrust of the other, Dermisache formulated a collective proposal where people could sit down together, work with or next to someone else, further that person’s work and make it one’s own, or leave it be knowing that someone else would pick up on it. Dermisache extended an invitation to conceive creative actions, to play with color, to connect to a vital praxis. That was her greatest political act, her bold wager, her avant-garde gesture.” SeeMirtha Dermisache. Porque ¡yo escribo!, 49–63.

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Between Carnaval and Mondrian: The Manifold Influences on Brazilian artist Hélio Oiticica https://post.moma.org/between-carnaval-and-mondrian-the-manifold-influences-on-brazilian-artist-helio-oiticica/ Wed, 08 Nov 2017 16:19:00 +0000 https://post.moma.org/?p=3109 Going beyond the context of modern Brazil and its experimental art scene, this essay traces a wide genealogy for his body of work, from local traditions such as samba to European intellectual figures such as Friedrich Nietzsche.

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Hélio Oiticica left behind a body of texts, correspondence, and interviews. This essay examines them in the context of other writings from 1960s and 70s Brazil as a guide into how the artist approached and developed works such as penetrables (sculptural booths) and parangolés (both costume and ambient proposal). Going beyond the context of modern Brazil and its experimental art scene, it traces a wide genealogy for his body of work, from local traditions such as samba to European intellectual figures such as Friedrich Nietzsche.

Hélio Oiticica, firstborn son of the entomologist and photographer José Oiticica (Jr.) and grandson of José Oiticica, philologist, founder of the anarchist newspaper Ação direta (Direct action), and author of the book O anarquismo ao alcance de todos (Anarchism accessible to all), was born on July 26, 1937, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. As a small child, Hélio was educated by private tutors and didn’t receive formal schooling until 1947, when his father was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship and the family moved to Washington, D.C. In 1954, Hélio Oiticica began studying painting under Ivan Serpa (1923–1973) at the Museum of Modern Art in Rio. In the years that followed, he had his first exhibitions, showing a series of abstract gouaches on cardboard that he called “Metaesquemas”; became linked to the Grupo Frente, who advocated abstraction and internationalism; and established friendships with the artist Lygia Clark (1920–1988) and the critic Mário Pedrosa (1900–1981), key figures in contemporary Brazilian art.

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Hélio Oiticica. Metaesquema No. 4066. 1958. Gouache on incised board, 21 x 22 7/8″ (53.3 x 58.1 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of the Oiticica Family

In March 1959, some of the members of Grupo Frente, together with other local artists—including Clark and Lygia Pape (1927–2004)—countersigned the Neo-Concrete manifesto written by the poet and critic Ferreira Gullar (1930–2016) and published in the newspaper Jornal do Brasil to accompany the first Neo-Concrete exhibition, held at the Museum of Modern Art in Rio. According to Gullar’s text, “The term neo-Concrete indicates a position vis-à-vis nonfigurative ‘geometric’ art (Neo-Plasticism, Constructivism, Suprematism, the Ulm-School), and, in particular, concrete art taken to a dangerous rationalist extreme.”1 In reaction to what they saw as the excessive rationalism behind contemporary abstraction, Neo-Concretists sought to expand the “expressive conquests”2 of precedent movements, directing their research toward “an appraisal of verbal ‘time’ and expression as a lived fact”3 in order to reach an “existential experience.”4 In this context, Oiticica began his theoretical and plastic investigations into the destabilization of the pictorial plane, a pursuit that would lead him to abandon the two-dimensionality of paint on canvas in favor of experimentation in the fields of phenomenology and perception.

In “Theory of the Non-Object,” another text from 1959, Gullar raises some of the ideas that would be particularly influential in Oiticica’s work and writings. Indeed, the concept of the “non-object” perfectly fits the processes that Oiticica would develop during the 1960s. “The expression ‘non-object,’” writes Gullar, “does not intend to describe a negative object nor any other thing that may be opposite to material objects. The non-object is not an anti-object but a special object through which a synthesis of sensorial and mental experiences is intended to take place. It is a transparent body in terms of phenomenological knowledge: while being entirely perceptible it leaves no trace. It is a pure appearance.”5

Hélio Oiticica. Box Bolide 12, ‘archeologic’. 1964–65. Synthetic polymer paint with earth on wood structure, nylon net, corrugated cardboard, mirror, glass, rocks, earth, and fluorescent lamp, 14 1/2 x 51 5/8 x 20 1/2″ (37 x 131.2 x 52.1 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Patricia Phelps de Cisneros in honor of Paulo Herkenhoff
Hélio Oiticica. Detail of Box Bolide 12, ‘archeologic’. 1964–65. Synthetic polymer paint with earth on wood structure, nylon net, corrugated cardboard, mirror, glass, rocks, earth, and fluorescent lamp, 14 1/2 x 51 5/8 x 20 1/2″ (37 x 131.2 x 52.1 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Gift of Patricia Phelps de Cisneros in honor of Paulo Herkenhoff

In subsequent years, Oiticica produced a series of spatial pieces that, rather than function as art objects, sought to generate “states of minds” and “predispositions to creative experiences.”5 Gullar’s non-objects became, in Oiticica’s language, “ambient art”: series of works he called “Penetrables,” booths in which the viewer is invited to enter; “Bolidos,” wood-and-glass boxes that, laid on the floor, require the viewer to look down in order to appreciate them; and “Núcleos,” labyrinthine “chromatic environments” that, consisting of multiple hanging panels, the viewer can pass through. “Ambient art,” he wrote, “is the overthrow of the traditional concept of painting-frame and sculpture—that belongs to the past. It gives way to the creation of ‘ambiences’: from there arise what I call ‘anti-art.’” In these series, which he created throughout the sixties, he left behind his role as a builder of works suitable for contemplation by viewers to become instead a facilitator of experiences to be shared by participants. Indeed, he later defined the “anti-art” as “the era of the popular participation in the creative field.”

Besides the influence of the Neo-Concrete movement, Oiticia’s artistic career was marked by the intellectual tradition of his family as well as lectures on classic and modern philosophy. A figure whose name appears time after time in Oiticica’s texts and whose influence is felt throughout his work is Friedrich Nietzsche. Oiticica himself acknowledged the German philosopher’s decisive influence: “I’m son of Nietzsche and step-son of Artaud,” he retrospectively claimed in 1978.6 He was particularly interested in Nietzsche’s conception of the Dionysiac as an artistic power linked to music, ecstasy, and community.

Not in vain, Lygia Pape, many years later, used Nietzschean terminology to describe Oiticica’s personality: “Hélio was an Apollonian young man, even a little bit pretentious. He worked with his father at the National Museum, where he learned a methodology: he was very organized and well-behaved. [. . .] In 1964, his father died and a friend of ours, Jackson [Ribeiro] took Hélio to paint the allegorical cars for Mangueira. Over there he discovered a Dionysiac space that he didn’t know [existed].”7 During one of his stays in Mangueira—the favela (shanty town) in the northern region of Rio that lends its name to the legendary escola do samba (samba school), the Mangueira samba school—he discovered a precarious construction on which was written the “magical word” parangolé—and he welcomed it as a true surrealist objet trouvé.8 From that moment on, he designated his work, which was based on performance and thus far removed from traditional painting, “parangolé.” “Parangolé,” he later stated, “represents the ambient proposal that I have developed until now.”9

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Hélio Oiticica. P16 Parangolé cape 12 “From Adversity We Live”. 1965 (reconstructed 1992). Jute, fabric, wood shavings, and plastics, 44 7/8 x 10 5/8 x 8 11/16″ (114 x 27 x 22 cm). The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Promised gift of Patricia Phelps de Cisneros through the Latin American and Caribbean Fund

Oiticica’s parangolés inherited many of the characteristics of the informal constructions in the favelas: never really finished, they are built with materials recycled from the streets. Oiticica recognized that his inspiration came from “markets, beggars’ houses, decoration of popular festivities, religious celebrations, carnival” while he emphasized the reactionary quality of “good taste” and the importance of finding creative features in ordinary, everyday life.10 But conceived as garments, parangolés are intimately linked with movement and dance—as opposed to static structures—and they cannot be considered without taking into account Oiticia’s own experience as a pasista (dancer) of Mangueira. Nietzsche’s influence is once again evident here: “In song and in dance man exhibits himself as a member of a higher community,” the philosopher wrote in The Birth of the Tragedy.11

The parangolé is not only a costume, a construction, a shelter, but also the performer’s experience of wearing it, and that of the viewer—who now, as a “participant-work,” can interact with it, taking his or her own place within it.12 It’s a ritual performance that erases the boundaries between artist and public, “the return to a non-intellectual state of creation, that tends to a sense of participation specifically Brazilian.”13 It promotes the entry of the masses into the field of artistic creation, because, as the German philosopher states, in the wake of Dyonisian emotions, “the subjective vanishes to complete self-forgetfulness.”14 Parangolé is the “anti-art” par excellence.

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Hélio Oiticica. Luiz Fernando Guimarães wearing P30 Parangolé cape 23, M’Way ke at the West Side Piers, New York. 1972. Courtesy of Institute for Studies on Latin American Art (ISLAA) and Henrique Faria, New York and Buenos Aires

In a true Nietzschean manner, Parangolé does not seek to establish a new moral, but rather to “demolish all the morals”: during the 1960s, Oiticica embraced marginality. “Suddenly,” he wrote to Lygia Clark in 1969, “here [in Mangueira], everything that was ‘sin’ became virtue.”15 His fascination with the streets as “a nourishment opposed to everything abstract,” his relationship with the toughest personalities of the favela, and his theorization of violence as a legitimate tool for liberation—all these elements are important parts of his radical conception of artistic, social, and political life.16. His conceptual project pairs the old revolutionary—the anarchist figure of his grandfather José—with the contemporary outlaw. And the directive “Be an outlaw, be a hero” was one of his banners.17

All of Oiticica’s ideas shape a theoretical framework within which to act upon European cultural modernity in collision with local Brazilian traditions. It’s a complex pop-culture universe where the philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty, the musician Caetano Veloso, the philosopher Immanuel Kant, and the infamous Cara de Cavalo (Horseface), a criminal murdered by vigilantes, coexist. In effect, in his texts, which are inseparable from his artwork, Oiticica intended “to explain the appearance of an avant-garde and justify it, not as a symptom of alienation, but as a decisive factor in its collective progress.”18 Thus Mondrian and carnaval live together within them.

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Hélio Oiticica. Parangolé P6 Capa 3. Homage to Mário Pedrosa. Fabric, cloth, nylon and journal photographies. 1965. Archive: Projeto Hélio Oiticica (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). Photo: Enciclopédia Itaú Cultural de Arte e Cultura Brasileiras. São Paulo: Itaú Cultural, 2017. Available at http://enciclopedia.itaucultural.org.br/obra66321/parangole-p6-capa-3-parangole-p6-capa-3-homenagem-a-mario-pedrosa. Accessed October 5, 2017. ISBN: 978-85-7979-060-7.

“What matters: the creation of a new language,” he wrote in 1973. “Destiny of Brazilian modernity asks for the creation of that language: relations, swallowing, all the phenomenology of that process [. . .] asks for and demands (under penalty of consuming itself in a conservative academicism) that language.”19 His proposals, in this sense, are deeply rooted in the anthropophagic project first formulated in the poet Oswald de Andrade’s (1890–1954) “Manifesto Antropófago” (“Cannibalist Manifesto”) of 1928. In an attempt to adapt the indigenous ritual attitude toward the foreign to the avant-garde, it encourages artists to appropriate and “digest” European theories and styles. The poetic and tangled text, let’s remember, was dated in a very particular way: “In Piratininga. Year 374 of the Swallowing of Bishop Sardinha,” the Portuguese religious figure who was, according to historical record, eaten by members of the Tupi tribe. In consonance with that statement of principles, de Andrade writes: “Tupi or not tupi, that is the question.” The “Manifesto Antropófago” foresees and, in a way resolves, an important part of Occidental culture’s debate in the second half of the twentieth century in that de Andrade addresses many of the problems that post-colonial and deconstructive discourses on globalization, hybridization, Otherness, Eurocentrism, etc., have tried to address. And he does so by transforming, in a cultural form, the encounter between the existential aspects of Shakespeare’s literature and the Tupi cannibalistic ritual. Hélio Oiticica is, likewise, a son of this tradition.

1    Ferreira Gullar: “Manifesto Neoconcreto,” in Antologia Crítica: Suplemento Dominical do Jornal do Brasil, eds. Renato Rodrigues da Silva and Bruno Melo Monteiro (Rio de Janeiro: Contra Capa, 2015), 143.
2    Ferreira Gullar: “Manifesto Neoconcreto,” 144.
3    Ferreira Gullar: “Museu de Arte Moderna: 1a Exposição Neoconcreta,” in ibid, 139.
4    Ferreira Gullar: “Manifesto e obra,” in ibid, 150.
5    Quotes in this paragraph are extracted from an interview with Marisa Alvarez de Lima, originally published in the magazine A Cigarra, on July 20, 1966, and reprinted in Hélio Oiticica, Materialismos, eds. and trans. Teresa Arijón and Bárbara Belloc (Buenos Aires: Manantial, 2013), 35.
6    Hélio Oiticica, in a conversation with Luis Fernando, Macalé and Jary, originally published in Folha de São Paulo, November 5, 1978, and reprinted in Materialismos, 75.
7    Lygia Pape, interview by Paola Berenstein Jacques, in Estética da ginga: a arquitetura das favelas através da obra de Hélio Oiticica (Rio de Janeiro: Editora Casa da Palavra RIOARTE, 2001), 27.
8    Irene V. Small clarifies the complex status of the term parangolé in her book Hélio Oiticica: Folding the Frame (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 188. “In fact,” she explains, “the word parangolé was not of Oiticica’s invention but rather carioca gíria, a slang term that emerged from Rio’s favelas but by 1964 had already begun to become obsolete. As Waly Salomão wrote in his posthumous homage to Oiticica, Qual é o Parangolé?, the word has no precise translation but derives from the ‘dynamic plasticity of language.’ It can refer to a disturbance, a samba rhythm, a sudden excitement, a working-class ball. But it can also suggest a linguistic style, an idle talk shaded towards the cunning, insignificant, or sly.”
9    Hélio Oiticica, interview by Alvarez de Lima, in Materialismos, 35.
10    Hélio Oiticica, “Bases fundamentais para uma definição de ‘Parangolé” (1964), in Materialismos, 145.
11    Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy or Hellenism and Pessimism, trans. William August Haussmann (New York: The MacMillan Company, 1910), 46.
12    Hélio Oiticica, “Anotaciones sobre el parangolé,” in Materialismos, 129. The viewer becomes this new entity who is a “participant” when he himself sees the work and a “participant-work” when he is seen from outside it by other viewers.
13    Hélio Oiticica, interview by Alvarez de Lima, in Materialismos, 35.
14    Friedrich Nietzsche, The Birth of Tragedy or Hellenism and Pessimism, 51.
15    Hélio Oiticica to Lygia Clark, June 7, 1969, in Lygia Clark Hélio Oiticica. Cartas 1964–74, ed. Luciano Figueiredo (Rio de Janeiro: Editora UFRJ, 1998), 103.
16    Hélio Oiticica, in a conversation with Luis Fernando, Macalé and Jary, op. Cit., 76
17    “Be an outlaw, be a hero” [Seja heroi, seja marginal], is not only is a slogan but also an actual work (a flag ) that Oiticica made in 1968.
18    Hélio Oiticica, “Esquema Geral da Nova Objetividade,” in Nova Objetividade Brasileira, exh. cat. (Rio de Janeiro: MAM-RJ, 1967, and reprinted in Irene V. Small, Hélio Oiticica: Folding the Frame (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016), 98.
19    Hélio Oiticica, “Brasil Diarrea,” originally published in Arte brasileira hoje, ed. Ferreira Gullar (Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1973), and reprinted in Materialismos, 111.

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